Moist and Dry Heat Cookery

Dry Heat Cooking In this method of cooking, heat is transferred to the food by radiation through the air, metal and fat that heats the metal at high temperatures sometimes even higher than 100 degrees celcius. This method majorly relies on the use of extremely high temperatures to achieve the required heating specifications.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Moist and Dry Heat Cookery specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Grilling This is a method of cooking that involves exposing food to heat either from below or above the food surface. It takes place by the help of heat transferred through air which transmits the heat to the food. Air being a poor heat conductor, the food to be grilled has to be placed close to the source of heat as possible. The grill is fast heated before the food is placed to be grilled (Eileen, 2010). It is sometimes used to marinate meat that will be grilled due to the high temperatures involved. Food is usually turned once during grilling and a grid is used to give the food distinctive grill marks. This type of cooking is ideal for poultry and fish. This is due to their soft and tender meat and the ease with which the grill marks form on their surfaces. Grilled Strip Steak Preparation time: 15 minutes Cook time: 20 minutes Total time: 35 minutes Ingredients 3 boneless beef strip steaks Kosher salt to taste 4 tea spoonful compound butter Freshly ground black pepper Preparation Allow the steaks in a room temperature for about 15 – 20 minutes Trim any excess fats and leave about  ¼ inch around the edge Preheat the grill Brush the steaks with butter and season them generously with kosher salt Place the steaks on the grill and do not overcrowd them. Cook for 4-5 minutes, depending on steak thickness and grill temperature. After about 2 minutes, rotate the steaks 45 degrees to give them cross hatched grill marks Using a pair of tongs, flip the steaks and c ook for another 4 minutes. Remove the steaks from heat and cover them with foil and allow them to rest in a warm place for about 5 minutes. Place the steak on plates on top of each other with a tablespoon of butter and serve immediately Serve 3 Roasting Roasting refers to a method that uses hot and dry air to cook food. The food to be roasted may be put in an oven or over an open flame. Roasting is mainly used to enhance the flavor and aroma of the food through browning on the surface of the food. Caramelization refers to the browning of food caused when carbohydrates are heated and maillard takes place in meat. Thus, it ensures that food is evenly cooked since all the food surfaces are directly exposed to the heat evenly. Roasting is also preferred where foods are required with less moisture content. Roasting is mainly used for larger cuts of meat like beef tenderloins. Although recommended for the whole poultry, it sacrifices the surface browning which is a source of much flavor since breast meat is drier and can be cooked faster than leg meat; hence the overall food will be unevenly cooked. Recipe for Roasting Turkey Breast Preparation time: 10 minutes Cook time: 1 hour Ingredients 4-5 lbs turkey breast 2 tablespoonful’s melted butter Freshly ground black pepper to taste Kosher salt to taste  ½ cup turkey stock for basting Procedure Preheat oven to about 4500F Place turkey breast on a rack in a roasting pan Brush turkey with melted butter and then generously season with kosher salt and black pepper Roast for 45 minutes while basting since a good taste requires basting twice at 15 minutes interval. Remove turkey when thermometer reads 1550F. Cover the turkey closely with foil for about 10 minutes before serving. Serve 6-8 people Deep frying It is usually hard to internalize the concept that deep frying is actually a form of dry heating because it involves submerging the whole food in hot liquid fat, hence often thought to be a method of wet c ooking. However, the golden brown color on the surface of deep fried food is a clear indicator of dry heating. The violent reaction between water and oil is also a clear indicator that they can never be jointly used.Advertising Looking for research paper on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Deep frying requires that the hot liquid fat be maintained at a temperature between 3250F and 4000F. Temperatures higher than this may cause the oil to smoke while lower temperatures may result into seepage of the oil into the food hence making it greasy. It is for this reason that deep fried foods appear to have very little oil on their surface and may be assumed to have been poorly fried. In order to ensure the deep frying oil stays hot throughout, it is recommended to introduce food in the oil in batches and too much food in the oil will cool it off. Assuming each food has some small percentage of attached moisture, the o verall moisture content will build up in the oil thus cooling it. The reaction between water and hot oil is usually violent. For this reason, it is always advisable to ensure food put into the oil is free of any excess moisture. You may wipe the food with dry paper or towel before putting it into oil. Deep Fried Chicken Preparation time 30 minutes Cook time 10 minutes Total time 40 minutes Ingredients 2lbs. cut up chicken Sauce mixture 1/3 cup water 1 cup hot sauce Seasoning blend 1.5 tea spoonful’s freshly ground black pepper  ¼ teaspoon garlic powder Dredging mixture 2 cups of all-purpose flour 1 tablespoon salt Procedure Heat peanut oil in a large deep pot to about 3500F Rinse and pat dry chicken pieces with a paper towel Sprinkle chicken generously on both sides with seasoned blend Once piece at a time, roll the chicken in flour mixture and drop into oil Fry until brown and crisp Drain on paper toweling Serves 5 people Moist Heat Cooking Moist heat cooking involve s the use of liquid or steam is used to cook food. Broth and wines are used both as heat transfer media and as flavors. As compared to dry heating methods, moist heating methods use lower temperatures since the liquids added serves as the media for heat transfer. Boiling This involves cooking food by submerging it hot water that has reached its possible highest temperature of 2120F (Riccio, 2009). Boiling can take different forms. A full rolling boil is characterized by violent water bubbles. This is suitable to produce heat for even steaming purposes. Boiling is recommended for harder whole foods like potatoes and bananas. It is also used in the preparation of large meat pieces. Recipe for Boiled Meat Preparation time: 30 minutes Total time: 30 minutes Total time: 1 hour Ingredients 1 lb. boiled beef 1 onion 4 carrots Celery  ¼ dessert spoon of butter 4 tea spoonful’s of tomato sauce Dried mushrooms Directions Place a mixture of chopped onion, carrot, celery, and butt er in a stockpot. Add boiled meat to the pot Season with salt and pepper to taste Set the pot on fire Sprinkle meat with tomato sauce once onions start turning translucent and continue While cooking, put a few dried mushrooms in boiling water When the meat is cooked, put it on a platter Blend the sauce, add soaked mushrooms and spoon the sauce over them. Serve 4 people Steaming This is a method of moist cooking that uses hot steam to conduct the heat to the food item. Once the water is heated beyond its boiling point, it stops being water and changes into steam. Steaming is does not involve agitation and bubbling of water, hence it is recommended for delicate items like seafood. It also avoids the loss of nutrients through leaching since it does not involve the submerging of the food item in water. Steaming can be done on a stovetop. A small pot containing water that is brought to simmers placed on the stove. The food is then placed in a basket which is suspended above the liquid a nd the pot covered. This allows the hot steam to circulate through the pot, thus cooking the food.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Moist and Dry Heat Cookery specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Recipe for Steamed Eggs Total time 20 minutes Prep time: 5 minutes Cook time: 15 minutes Ingredients 2 eggs Water for steaming Procedure For refrigerated eggs, leave them out at room temperature for about 3 minutes Prepare a steamer over a relatively high heat. Ensure you are getting plenty of steam Steam the eggs for about 12 minutes Allow to cool and run under a little cold water before peeling. Stewing This is a method of moist cooking that involves cooking food in its own juices by adding a very little quantity of moistening agent. As the food cooks, it is flavored with extracts from the stewed food (Cunningham, 2011). During stewing, evaporation is minimized by covering the stewing vessel with a fitting l id and simmering the stew on a stove. Stewing is recommended for cooking meat since it offers an economical way as it allows for the use of less expensive cuts of meat. Recipe for Kale Stew Prep time: 20 minutes Cook time: 1 hour 30 minutes Total time: 1 hour 50 minutes Ingredients 6 large peeled and cubed potatoes  ¼ cup butter 10 cups of water 1 teaspoon ground black pepper 2 pounds kale (rinsed, dried and chopped) Directions Place the potatoes into a large pot. Add butter and water and bring to a boil Cook potatoes for about 20 minutes until tender Reserve the cooking liquid and mash the potatoes until smooth Return the cooking water to the pot. Add salt and pepper. Simmer for 20 minutes Add fresh kale and sausage, stir and simmer for 30 minutes. Serve when still hot References Cunningham, M. (2011).  The Fannie Farmer Cookbook (revised). New York, NY: Bantam Books. Eileen, B. (2010).  Choosing a career in the restaurant industry. New York, NY: Rosen Publishing Group. Riccio, A. (2009).  The Italian Experience In New Haven  : Images And Oral  Histories. New York, NY: SUNY Press. This research paper on Moist and Dry Heat Cookery was written and submitted by user Holden Church to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Assisted Suicide Should Become Legal

Assisted Suicide Should Become Legal Free Online Research Papers Physician-Assisted Suicide Should Become Legalized Ever since the beginning of America, human rights have been established to help develop the freedom’s that exist today. The right to refuse unwanted medical treatment is a perfect example of such rights (statistic). Meaning, if a patient denies further treatment, the doctor must respect and obey the patient’s decision. Shouldn’t a person be allowed to decide when they wish to die? (rhetorical question). Currently, the law states that physician-assisted suicide is illegal under all circumstances; this even affects those with terminal or incurable illnesses. By not legalizing assisted suicide the government is causing pain and suffering to terminal citizens; also they are prohibiting a dignified human right. If a person discovered that they had a disease with only a low percentage of being cured, that may leave them feeling helpless and insecure. Of course, the doctor could continue treatments and operations (appeals to authority), but after a while, enough is enough. As the hospital bills begin rising and the operations are no longer helping, the patient begins wondering if there’s a light at the end of the tunnel or if they are going to be left alone in the dark (metaphor). With physician-assisted suicide, medical costs/hospital bills would be severely reduced which could help the economy in the future, and the patient’s family as well. Doctor and writer Wesley J. Smith suggests, â€Å"A poison that killed one patient cost $40. It could cost the Health Maintenance Organization $40,000 to care for them properly until natural death comes,† The medication would not be offered to any random person, only those with terminal illnesses and no desire to carry on. Death ass istance should only be available towards those whom nothing else is going to save them (Connors). People with depression should not have the same privileges as the terminally ill patients; only due to the fact that must depression can be cured eventually. Along with all the money going towards operations, comes the stress and suffering of the patient. Life for a patient is like a novel, it has a beginning, a rising action, a climax, a falling action and the end. If pain gets in the way and lengthens the amount of time before the end, then the novel may not be worth finishing, or in other words, life should not continue on longer than it has to. Everyone wants a peaceful, non-dramatic death; it’s a commonly shared idea (hyperbole). â€Å"Even where there is much suffering, dying people can find moments of meaning and connection,† says Doctor Timothy E. Quill. When people get caught between the choice of life or death, they find a different kind of mindset. Their priorities for themselves are more accurate, and they suddenly know what the best decision is for themselves. It’s obvious that patients who are suffering cannot ignore the fact that the pain will go away. The longer they choose to stay alive, the more it w ill affect them and possibly lead them to an unhealthy mindset. Quill also adds, â€Å"When we can help people achieve a peaceful, calm death, the kind of death we would all like to have, we are doing a wonderful task†. When it comes down to it, these terminal patients have been down a rough path and deserve nothing more than a peaceful, pain-free death. As previously stated, all patients have the right to refuse any medical treatment that they do not wish to have. A recent poll found that only 61% of people were aware of this law, and unfortunately 10% believed that the law demands a patient to accept any treatment the doctor wishes to provide (Torr). All terminal patients should have the general idea of their future, and perhaps knowing this outcome will help them decide what to do. If they notice that their future consists of a lot of risky surgeries, they may not wish to proceed. Unfortunately, things are not that easy in the medical world. When it comes to surgery, not one person will have the same outcome of another. The surgery may help some people; it could also make their status worse, or possibly will have no effect on the body. It’s just a risk that doctor’s have to take when they perform surgery, not knowing how the body will react. Sometimes these risks frighten the patient, and make them lean more towards death. Without assisted suicide, the ‘natural’ death of some patients may not come for months or even years. So then they’d have to deal with an endless period of suffering, which seems too inhumane for American freedoms. On the reverse side, many argue that physician-assisted suicide is not that way to go. There are a ton of reported cases of illegal assisted suicides all across the country. In Washington State one year, around 16% of physicians were asked to assist a patient in their death, and a quarter of those doctors gave patients lethal medication (Torr). Some also may seem assisted suicide as the easy way out, and that the patient must be at an ultimate low in their life if all they can think about is death. They find these people to be cowards and believe that they should take the risk of surgery, for the simple reason that you only have one life. Also, some would even consider assisted suicide as murder, even though the patient is the one who is requesting it. These people such as James D. Torr from the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, believe that there are other alternatives out there. Torr says, â€Å"The physician’s safest course is to tell a patient seeking medical as sistance in dying, ‘it’s illegal. Doctors don’t do this. You’re on your own†. He then feels that the patient will understand and seek another alternative instead of his or her own life. The fact of the matter is, the government should not be allowed to control when a terminal patient chooses to die. If the patient is in such horrible agony, and they refuse to take any more medical procedures, they should be given the option to take their own life with assistance peacefully. It’s understandable why some people feel as if physician-assisted suicide is unacceptable, but at the same time, how is a person supposed to argue against a topic that they haven’t experienced for themselves? They wouldn’t have the proper knowledge to support their opinion. If physician-assisted suicides were to become legal, it could relieve terminal patients of agony and stress, also it could benefit our hospital’s and citizens financially. Connors, Paul. â€Å"The Right-to-Die Movement Supports Death on Demand.† 2007. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale. CRHS LMC, Mullica Hill. 19 Mar. 2009. Keyword: Assisted Suicide Quill, Timothy E. Dying Patients Should Have Access to Both Hospice Care and Assisted Suicide. 2000. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale. CRHS LMC, Mullica Hill. 19 Mar. 2009. Keyword: Assisted Suicide Smith, Wesley J. â€Å"Physician-Assisted Suicide Should Not Be Legalized.† 2002. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale. CRHS LMC, Mullica Hill. 19 Mar. 2009. Keyword: Assisted Suicide Torr, James D. â€Å"Physician-Assisted Suicide Should Not Be Legalized.† 2000. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale. CRHS LMC, Mullica Hill. 19 Mar. 2009. Keyword: Assisted Suicide Research Papers on Assisted Suicide Should Become LegalArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)The Fifth HorsemanThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationCapital PunishmentPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyGenetic Engineering19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceQuebec and CanadaThe Masque of the Red Death Room meanings

Citizenship education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Citizenship education - Essay Example In most economies, education is a right to each and every citizen with permanent citizenship and they stretch education privileges to non-nationals who are democratically/ legally living in these states as outlined in the national task on citizenship education (Tilly, 2007, pp.13-16). Citizenship education can be viewed in two perspectives of immigrants or as a subject. As a subject it is designed to associate the learners with the cultural, social, and economic activities with the best approach as supported by Herbert and Kertz (2012, p.26) Bloor (2010, p.24) claims that â€Å"Citizenship education for immigrants is designed to prepare non-nationals/ non-citizens on their dos and don’ts so as to become legally and socially accepted as citizens of these states either on a permanent or temporal basis†. ... free interaction by people in a country exercising their rights and freedom, and taking part in legal and political activities of that country without discrimination. This forms the basis of a free and fair exchange of cultural diversities. Citizenship education platform can be gauged by multiculturalism in a state which can be simply described as a demographic make- up of the society at certain organizational levels such as schools, neighbourhoods, and cities within the state. Alternatively, Osler and Starkey (2006) define multiculturalism as â€Å"ideologies or policies that that promote institutionalization of diversified desires of human kind to express their identity in the manner they deem fit like equal respect of different cultures in the society and opportunities entitlement†(p. 11). They argue that for multiculturalism to hold a great measure of democracy needs to be put in place. An Intercultural citizen can be viewed as one who appropriately adapts valued rules, no rms and expectations of a given foreign state for a healthy relationship with the citizens and who effectively values the state’s goals and/or rewards in line with the society. This is to mean that intercultural citizen is knowledgeable enough and competent to interact freely with foreign cultures through understanding specific concepts of these cultures like perception, thoughts and feelings. Citizenship education, multiculturalism and intercultural citizenship are related in that for appropriate education, economies with multiculturalism have to come up with policies and regulations to govern interactions of foreign students/cultures and their establishment in terms of education and coexistence as described by Osler and Starkey(2005, p.11). For instance, multicultural economies will have to

Are leaders born successful or can they be trained Essay

Are leaders born successful or can they be trained - Essay Example However, to achieve such goals they must have broader skills and trait sets that allow them to think and act globally. Such traits are charisma, creativity, flexibility, achievement drive, motivation, honesty, integrity, self-confidence, cognitive ability and emotional stability (Elliot, 1994). Nevertheless, there is an issue that always arises when we are trying to understand the nature of the leaders. Are such skills and traits inherited or any of us can be trained to become a leader? Are leaders born? This controversial issue has been an object of study for centuries. There are many theories that suggest that to become an authentic leader, one has to be born with a distinct set of personal characteristics. Such as ‘The great man theory of leadership’ that became very popular since the 19th century. Many historians and scientists examined this theory. â€Å"Effective leaders are those gifted with divine inspiration and the right characteristics.† This theory is based on the study of people who were already world’s legendary leaders such us Abraham Lincoln, Julius Caesar, Mahatma Gandhi, and Alexander the Great (Bass, 1990). The conception of Traits Theory of Leadership also suggests that leaders are given special qualities that separate them from their followers. The leadership is defined in terms of traits of personality and character. To be even more precise, (Bird 1940) compiled a list of seventy-nine such attributes, from twenty psychological oriented studies (Bass, 1990). People declared as leaders, or sometimes even as heroes, presented features like superior intelligence, physical strength, moral force, charisma, self-confidence and an unbelievable desire to succeed. Those divine virtues given to them, enabled born leaders to stand out from the masses and achieve great things, regardless of setting or situation (Bass, 1990). Many scientists also consider the phenomena of leadership as the set of the right qualities or persona lity that are innate. The ability to lead is directly linked to one's personality. Moreower, there is a special brain chemistry between leaders and followers. The high levels of serotonin appear to promote leadership (Cawthon, 2006). Numerous contemporary studies have revealed that genes affect a variety of leadership abilities. The innate qualities influence your attitude toward leadership, your willingness to take leadership role and even what kind of leader a person might become. Some portion of your attitude toward leadership is hidden in your DNA. Through many studies, we know that genetics accounts for about 40 percent of the difference between people in what they think of leadership. The same genetic predispositions that accounted for our ancestors’ interest to heading up the hunting party or running the clan, it seems, the same happens today, affecting our lives in modern organizations (Shane, 2010). Professor Scott Shane (2010, pp.122-123) also suggests that the DNA influences whether you move up in your company or not. Because people tend to engage in behaviors that they are good at, those with the genes that predispose them to develop leadership potential are more likely to move toward leadership roles. Genes influence whether you become a leader through your personality traits, social

Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Terrorism - Essay Example Analyzing Different Types Of Terrorism Introduction Based on the execution and effects of terrorist behavior, acts of terror do not just happen; they are well thought and planned. All terrorist behavior is based on extremist beliefs and intolerance towards contrasting interests (Martin, 2009). Although almost all acts of terror are based on political motives, extremism is very divergent depending on the belief systems of the concerned terrorists, thus the existence of different types of terrorism. Left-Wing Versus Right-Wing Terrorism In almost all political systems, there are conflicting views on how the system should be run. There are those factions that support the preservation of traditional values, while other factions advocate for new methods of administration. According to Martin (2009), right-wing extremists are those who believe that the values that led to past glory have been eroded by enemy culture. As a result, rightists often use aggressive measures to preserve these cul tures and cement their status. On the other hand, left-wing extremists act aggressively towards establishing a new order by first destroying the current system. Most leftists believe that they have been oppressed by the existing regime, thus the need to create a just and fair regime. Ideally, leftists consider themselves the voice of the oppressed and engage the rightists in aggressive politics in order to establish a new system. Consequently, rightists respond through terrorist violence in an attempt to safeguard the ideals and order of the group. Pitcavage (2001) gives the example of the militia movement, a paramilitary rightist group that arose in the United States during the 1990s. This movement advocated for the right of every individual to own a gun in order to protect themselves from a tyrannical government. The militia movement claimed that the federal government was creating a conspiracy to rob citizens off their rights and exercise more control over them. To this end, the rightist believed that the government through the police unit was creating security incidents and using the same to increase government power over the people. Moreover, the militia believed that the United States government was colluding with the United Nations to establish a tyrannical regime under the â€Å"New World Order.† Generally, the militia movement would act with hostility towards the federal government. The militias would attack U.S military bases believed to be training troops from the United Nations. In addition, the militias would manufacture illegal weapons and use the same to confront federal authorities (Pitcavage, 2001, p. 971). Martin (2009, p. 254) gives the example of the â€Å"Battle of Seattle† that was organized in 1999 by leftists to protest against globalization. The leftist protestors believed that globalization would limit the role played by each culture in the world, thus bringing about anarchy. However, according to Martin (2009, p. 254), left-wing terrorism has been gradually decreasing since the end of Marxism. State Terrorism State terrorism occurs when states decide to act violently towards international or domestic adversaries. In the international arena, a state may choose to use aggression and violence to

Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Status in Menstrual Cycle

Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Status in Menstrual Cycle Evaluation of oxidative stress and antioxidant status during  normal menstrual cycle Abstract: Background Objectives: Oxidative stress has been investigated to explain various physiological as well as pathological basis of many medical conditions. But very few data concerning the oxidative stress during normal menstrual cycle of eumenorrheic women are available. Thus, the purpose of study was to examine the physiological role of oxidative stress during normal menstrual cycle. Methods: 120 young healthy female subjects of reproductive age group (17-27 yrs), having regular menstrual cycle, were examined. Serum malondialdehyde (MDA), an oxidative stress biomarker and serum ascorbic acid (vitamin-C), an antioxidant vitamin were assessed in the follicular phase (on 7th day) and in the luteal phase (on 21st day) of normal menstrual cycle. Results: In the present study, significant higher (p0.05) levels of ascorbic acid were observed in the luteal phase when compared to the follicular phase. Non-significant negative correlations were also observed between MDA and ascorbic acid in both the phases of normal menstrual cycle. Significant increase in serum MDA level coincided with the increased progesterone and estrogen levels during the luteal phase. High levels of estrogen may be the initiator of lipid peroxidation process which eventually ends up with cellular injury during the luteal phase. Interpretation Conclusion: Oxidative stress has an important role to play in physiological phenomenon of the menstruation. Keywords: Antioxidants, ascorbic acid, malondialdehyde (MDA), menstrual cycle, oxidative stress. Abbreviations: MDA, malondialdehyde. Introduction Menstrual cycle is the result of complex interacting processes involving interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary, ovaries, uterus, prostaglandins and neuroendocrine factors1. The normal menstrual cycle is a twenty eight day period which is divided into two phases i.e. follicular phase and luteal phase. The follicular phase is characterised by a low level of estrogen and progesterone which is followed by rise in estradiol, lutenizing hormone, and follicle stimulating hormone at the time of ovulation, while the luteal phase is associated with increased levels of progesterone and estrogen. These phases are associated with various changes in blood parameters along with variations in the sex hormones. Several powerful reactive oxygen species or free radicals or oxidants are produced during the course of metabolism in blood cells and most other cells of the body. These oxidants are very reactive molecules that can react with proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and other molecules which changes physicochemical status of the cell to alter their structure and cause tissue damage. Lipid peroxidation is a well established mechanism of cellular injury in human and is used as an indicator of oxidative stress in cells and tissues. Malondialdehyde (MDA) is one of the important byproduct of lipid peroxidation process which is widely used as an indicator of lipid peroxidation2. These free radicals are the target for the enzymatic and non-enzymatic scavenging systems3, which includes the antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, vitamin-A, vitamin-C, vitamin-E etc. that scavenge the free radicals and protect the tissues from oxidative stress. Oxidative stress has been implicated in various physiological as well as pathological bases of many medical conditions including reproductive system. Evidences have shown the dual effects of oxygen radicals in the physiological reproductive processes such as oocyte maturation, ovulation, menstruation, luteolysis, luteal maintenance in pregnancy, implantation and blastocyst development4,5,6, as well as in the pathological conditions like spontaneous abortions and infertility in females7. The imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants resulting from either an overproduction of free radicals or a deficit in antioxidant protection leads to oxidative stress8. Although, reports regarding variations of oxidative stress across the normal menstrual cycle in eumenorrheic women have been published, specially in reference to MDA (a marker of oxidative stress and an important byproduct of lipid peroxidation), but these are sparse and have conflicting trend. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the role of oxidative stress during the different phases of normal menstrual cycle by measuring the MDA which is served as an oxidative stress biomarker and ascorbic acid (vitamin-C), served as an antioxidant. Materials and Methods The present study was carried out on 120 normal healthy and regular menstruating female subjects aged between 17 and 27 years (mean age 20.53 + 2.9 years) selected from thexxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Study was carried out in the xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxPermission was also obtained from institutional ethical committee for carrying out the research work. After seeking an informed written consent and recording the detailed menstrual history (i.e. age at menarche, date of last menstruation, cycle length and days of bleeding), the subjects were then subjected to sample collection. Serum malondialdehyde (MDA) and serum ascorbic acid (vitamin-C) levels were assayed during their monthly menstrual cycle. All subjects were neither obese nor on any medication of any known pathologies. 5 ml of fasting blood samples were drawn from antecubital vein from each subject during the follicular phase (on 7th day of the cycle) and luteal phase (on 21st day of the cycle) after taking full antiseptic precautions. The MDA levels were measured by thiobarbituric acid assay method9. The principle of the method was based on the spectrophotometric measurement of the colour developed during the reaction of thiobarbituric acid with MDA. The concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances was calculated by the absorbance coefficient of malondialdehyde-thiobarbituric acid complex. Serum ascorbic acid was estimated spectrophotometrically, by using 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine10. The underlying principle was based on the oxidation of ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid followed by coupling with 2,4- dinitrophenyl hydrazine under controlled conditions, in the presence of Thiourea as a mild reducing agent which gives red coloured osazones. The data thus obtained was subjected to statistical analysis using the PRIMER OF BIOSTATISTICS software. The comparison of variables was done using the Student paired ‘t’ test and correlation between variables was estimated by using Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The significance level was considered at p Results The mean serum MDA and serum ascorbic acid levels during the follicular and luteal phases of menstrual cycle are presented as in Table 1. In the present study, the mean serum MDA (nmol/ml) level was greater during the luteal phase (4.294+1.60 nmol/ml) as compared to follicular phase (2.119+0.83 nmol/ml). The difference between MDA levels in the luteal phase was highly significant (p Lower values of serum ascorbic acid were found in luteal phase when compared to follicular phase. The mean values observed were 0.9399+0.40 mg/dl 0.8963+0.37 mg/dl in follicular phase and luteal phase, respectively. But, the changes were not significant statistically (p>0.05). In this study, a negative correlation was also observed between serum ascorbic acid (mg/dl) and serum MDA (nmol/ml) levels in both follicular and luteal phases but the correlation was found to be non-significant in both follicular phase (r value=-0.026, p>0.05) as well as in luteal phase (r value=-0.010, p>0.05). Table 1: Mean+SD levels of serum Malondialdehyde (MDA) and serum Ascorbic acid during follicular and luteal phases of menstrual cycle. Data expressed as mean and SD, * Highly significant, ** Non-significant. Discussion Present study has revealed the role of oxidative stress in the physiology of menstruation. We observed a significant higher levels of MDA while a non-significant lower levels of ascorbic acid in the luteal phase when compared with the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. Previous studies also have correlated increased serum MDA levels during the luteal phase with the physiological phenomenon of menstruation in the healthy normal menstruating females which support our study results6,11. While, no significant differences in MDA levels throughout the normal menstrual cycle also have been reported12,13,14. Unlike our study results, a progressive significant rise in plasma ascorbic acid levels has been reported from menstrual to ovulation15. Similarly, â€Å"a sharp increase in the fasting level of plasma Vitamin C† also has been showed in some women during the middle of the menstrual cycle16. Whereas, some other researchers found no evidences of unusual variability of plasma ascorbic acid values throughout the menstrual cycle, which supports our study17. The significant rise of MDA and depletion of ascorbic acid levels during the luteal phase of menstrual cycle coincides with the increased levels of estrogen and progesterone, which is a characteristic feature of this phase18. Increased levels of estrogen and progesterone cause the proliferation of uterus while the initiation of sloughing of the endometrium is mainly due to the rise in the estrogen levels18,19,20. Thus, the high estrogen level from developing follicles may be the initiator of lipid peroxidation process21, which eventually causes the cellular injury followed by release of cytokines especially tumour necrosis factor-alpha, which generates reactive oxygen species from the tissues which in turn causes lipid peroxidation22. The generated free radicals may play an important role in spasm of the highly vascularised vessels leading to vascular necrosis and menstrual flow, when hormonal support for the endometrium is diminished. High levels of oxidative stress have been coincided with high levels of female sex hormone such as estradiol in previous studies also6,21,23. While, in other studies a significant negative correlation between these parameters in regularly menstruating females also have been established24. Whereas, some evidences show no significant correlation between ovarian hormones and oxidative stress during the follicular and luteal phases of menstrual cycle25. Present study perhaps therefore suggests that the high MDA level in the luteal phase may play an important role in the initiation of menstruation which is a well established cellular injury based phenomenon. Conclusion In conclusion, these results suggest that increase of serum MDA levels may play an important role in the physiological phenomenon of menstruation. References 1. Joseph L. Mayo. A healthy menstrual cycle. Clinical Nutrition Insights 1997; 5(9): 1-8. 2. Raharjo S, Sofos JN and Schmitt GR. Solid-phase acid extraction improves thiobarbituric acid methods to determine lipid oxidation. J Food Sci 1993; 58: 921-932. 3. Grunert RR and Phillips PH. A modification of nitroprusside method of analysis for glutathione. Arch Biochem 1951; 30(2): 217-225. 4. Sawada M and Carlson J. Superoxide radical production in plasma membrane samples from regressing corpora lutea. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1989; 67(5): 465-471. 5. Harvey AJ, Kind KL and Thompson JG. REDOX regulation of early embryo development. Reproduction 2002; 123: 479-486. 6. Akande AA and Akinyinka AO. Serum malondialdehyde levels during menstrual cycle. Afr J Biotechnol 2005; 4(11): 1297-1299. 7. Agarwal A, Aponte-Mellado A, Premkumar BJ, Shaman A, Gupta S. The effects of oxidative stress on female reproduction: a review. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2012; 10: 49. 8. Terada LS. Specificity in reactive oxidant signaling : Think globally, act locally. J Cell Biol 2006; 174: 615-623. 9. Satoh K. Serum lipid peroxide in cerebrovascular disorders determined by a new colorimetric method. Clin Chim Acta 1978; 90(1): 37-43. 10. Natelson S. Determination of ascorbic acid by using 2,4 – dinitrophenyl hydrazine. Techniques of Clinical Chemistry. 3rd ed. Springfield, USA: Charles C. Thomas. 1971: 165-166. 11. Karowicz-Bilinska A, Plodzidym M, Krol J, Lewinska A, Bartosz G. Changes of markers of oxidative stress during menstrual cycle.Redox Rep 2008; 13(5): 237-240. 12. Serviddio G, Loverro G, Vicino M, et al. Modulation of endometrial redox balance during the menstrual cycle: relation with sex hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87(6): 2843-2848. 13. Elhadd TA, Neary R, Abdu TA, et al. Influence of the hormonal changes during the normal menstrual cycle in healthy young women on soluble adhesion molecules, plasma homocysteine, free radical markers and lipoprotein fractions. Int Angiol 2003; 22(3): 222-228. 14. Browne RW, Bloom MS, Schisterman EF, et al. Analytical and biological variation of biomarkers of oxidative stress during the menstrual cycle. Biomarkers 2008; 11: 160-183. 15. Michos C, Kiortsis DN, Evangelou A, Karkabounas S. Antioxidant protection during the menstrual cycle : The effects of estradiol on ascorbic – dehydroascorbic acid plasma levels and total antioxidant plasma status in eumenorrhoic women during the menstrual cycle. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2006; 85(8): 960-965. 16. Mickelson O, Dippel AL and Todd RL. Plasma Vitamin C levels in women during the menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1943; 3(11): 600-602. 17. Hauck HM. Plasma levels and urinary excretion of ascorbic acid in women during the menstrual cycle. J Nutr 1947; 33(5): 511-514. 18. Ganong. William F. Gonads: Development and function of the reproductive system. In: Review of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. USA: Prentice-Hall Int. Inc. 1987: 364-369. 19. Llewellyn-Jones D. Everywomen A gynaecological guide for life. 4th ed. The Chancer press. Great Britain: 1986: p-48. 20. Whitley RJ, Wayne M and Nelson BW. Endocrinology. In: Teitz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry. Carl Burtis and Edward Ashwood (editors). Philadephia: Saundera company. 1992: p-1879. 21. Schisterman EF, Gaskins AJ, Mumford SL, et al. Influence of Endogenous Reproductive Hormones on F2-Isoprostane Levels in Premenopausal Women. Am J Epidemiol 2010; 172(4): 430-439. 22. Romero FJ, Bosch-Morell F, Romero MJ, Jareno EJ, Romero B, Roma MN. Lipid peroxidation products and antioxidants in human diseases. Environ Health Perspect 1998; 106: 1229-1234. 23. Sowers M, McConnell D, Jannausch ML, et al. Oestrogen metabolites in relation to isoprostanes as a measure of oxidative stress. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008; 68(5): 806-813. 24. Bednarek–Tupikowska G, Bohdanowicz–Pawlak A, Bidzinska B, Milewicz A, Antonowicz–Juchniewicz J, Andrzejak R. Serum lipid peroxide and superoxide dismutase activity in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Gynecol Endocrinol 2001; 15(4): 298-303. 25. Lutoslawska G, Tkaczyk J, panczenco-– kresowska B, Hubner – Wozniak E, Skierska E, Gajewski AK. Plasma TBARS, blood GSH concentrations, and erythrocyte antioxidant enzyme activities in regularly menstruating women with ovulatory and anovulatory menstrual cycles. Clin Chim Acta 2003; 331(1-2): 159-163.

Fear of Polio in the 1950s Essay -- Disease Illness

Fear of Polio in the 1950s Paralytic poliomyelitis, "polio", held a reign of terror over this nation for decades. But unless you were born before 1955, polio may seem to be just another ephemeral disease that has been nonexistent for years. Those born before 1955 remember having a great fear of this horrible disease which crippled thousands of once active, healthy children. This disease had no cure and no identified causes, which made it all the more terrifying. People did everything that they had done in the past to prevent the spread of disease, such as quarantining areas, but these tactics never seemed to work. Polio could not be contained. Many people did not have the money to care for a family member with polio. This was one of the reasons the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis was organized. The March of Dimes, the fund raiser headed by the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, raised thousands and thousands of dollars to help people care for their polio stricken family members and to aid in the cost of research for a vaccine that would put an end to this misery that affected the lives of so many people. Poliomyelitis was the term used by doctors to describe the condition in which the gray (polios) anterior matter of the spinal chord (myelos) was inflamed (-itis). Until a cure was discovered, no one had the slightest idea where "polio" had come from or why it paralyzed so many children. People learned later that, oddly enough, it was the improved sanitary conditions which caused children to be attacked by the virus. Since people were no longer in contact with open sewers and other unsanitary conditions which had exposed them to small amounts of the polio virus as infants, when paralysis is rare, the dis... ...dy of Poliomyelitis, 1954" Medicine (September 1992): 316-320, at p. 317. 23. Smith, pp. 126-27. 24. Enders, pp. 317-18. 25. Dorothy Horstmann, "Three Landmark Articles about Poliomyelitis," Medicine (September 1992): 320-25, at p. 322. 26. Horstmann, p. 322. Bibliography Atkinson, William. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Washington: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996. Beneson, Abram. Control of Communicable Diseases in Man. New York: The American Public Health Association, 1970. Enders, John. "Some Recent Advances in the Study of Poliomyelitis, 1954". Medicine. Sept. 1992: 316-20. (reprinted) Horstmann, Dorothy. "Three Landmark Articles about Poliomyelitis". Medicine. Sept. 1992: 320-25. Smith, Jane S. Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1990.